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With the pressure of increased taxation to pay for the Napoleonic Wars removed, British Beers and Ales began to increase in strength and decrease in price. Though they never quite returned to the levels of the late 18th century.


Tied HousesThe most of the licensed public houses in the city are connected with one brewing company or another, and, hence, are called 'tied houses.' The brewers advance loans to the publican on security of his lease, and on condition that he sell the lender's liquor alone. The sign of the company is then placed above the door, and, in this way, a single brewhouse has the value of £15,000 in sign-boards stuck up over London. This explains what a stranger in the metropolis is at first sight very much struck with — the number of large boards marked with 'Whitbread's Entire' Meux'a Dublin Refined,' or ' Combe and Delafield's Brown Stout house,' that meet the eye in every part of London."
"The parliamentary gazetteer of England and Wales, volume III", 1848, page 241.


Drinking vesselsThere's various types of tosh talked about the move to glass drinking vessels. Usually that beers became paler after its introduction. I'm not going to argue the toss about that particular myth today. Instead we're going to consider pewter pots.


Glass has one definite advantage: it's neutral in flavour. Pewter, on the other hand, is not and adds its own particular taste to anything which is consumed from it. Which probably explains the unusual attachment some drinkers had to vessels of this sort. Particularly for drinking Porter.




". . . everybody knows that there are many persons who would rather not drink ale or porter at all, than drink either out of a glass. Their affection for pewter pots is so great, that one cannot help thinking there is something in the peculiar metal itself as palatable to their taste, though only put to their mouths, as is the liquid which it contains. One of the late Irish M.P.'s was so devotedly attached to drinking porter out of a pewter pot, that he rather preferred running the risk, when he went into any tavern, of being voted, as he used to say, " ungenteel," than submit to the privation of not having the liquid in a pewter pot. His plan for concealing his metallic partialities from the other persons in the room, was to instruct the waiter, when he brought in the porter, to place it under the table. This done, the ex-honourable gentleman bowed down his head, and took draught after draught of Whitbread and Co.'s " Entire,'' as occasion required, replacing the pewter pot with its contents, each time, in its locality beneath the table."
"Sketches in London" by James Grant, 1838, pages 126 - 127.


This text implies that not only was glass in wide use in pubs, but that pewter pots were very low class. Not something any respectable person would be seen drinking from.


Brewing materials

There was a huge change in the materials used for brewing caused by the enactment of a law prohibiting all ingredients other than malt and hops in 1816. It was a reaction to brewers avoiding the malt tax by either brewing with unmalted grain of sugar.


MeasuresThere was a change in the size of a pint of beer in 1824, when ale and wine gallons were combined, standardising on the something close to the former.


MaltMalting was a highly regulated activity. The reason was simple: a duty on malt was the principal method of taxing beer. Even more so when the excise duty on beer was abolished in 1830. Government legislation dictated how maltsters had to operate. The penalties for failing to adhere to the regulations were severe: fines of £100, £200 or even £600 and confiscation of the malt. Most of the offences were concerned with artificially reducing the volume of grain at the points when it was measured by excise officers, duty being set per quarter, a measurement of volume. (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 10-14.)


The malt tax was not collected as efficiently in all parts of the UK. Less than 50% of the duty was collected in Wales and Ireland. (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 40.) In Ireland, great quantities of unmalted grain: "many Irish Brewers are at present using raw barley, mixed with Malt, and this, not in a small way, but to the extent of one-half; some even more: and from their mode of peparing barley, they obtain an extract within 7s. per quarter of that manufactured from entire Malt." (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 40.)


A significant proportion of total tax income, around 10%, was derived from the tax on malt.




Tax on malt and total tax income



year

total tax

malt tax

hop duty

malt+hop tax

% of total tax



1830

£50.786.683

£4.231.997

£88.047

£4.320.044

8,51%



1837

£48.742.656

£5.665.200

£178.578

£5.843.778

11,99%



1843

£46.965.631

£4.848.584

£133.431

£4.982.015

10,61%



1845

£54.060.350

£5.027.062

£158.009

£5.185.071

9,59%



1848

£51.546.000







£212.482






Source:



"An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, pages 210, 212, 229









The best type of barley for malting was rath, which ripened two weeks earlier than other types. Its thin skin and plump grains made it particularly suitable for malting. Chevalier barley was also highly regarded by brewers. Spring was the best time to sow. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 14.) Barley suitable for malting weighed, on average, between 50 and 56 pounds per bushel. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 17.)


Mostly English barley was malted, purely for reasons of quality. "the barley of continental growth is, for the most part, OF TOO INFERIOR QUALITY, as compared with English, to justify the Maltster extensively using foreign; beside, the duty and expense upon a barley malted, yielding 70lbs of saccharine, is the same as upon the best English yielding 90lbs." (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 47.)


Each quarter of barley needed 149 square feet of space on the malting floor and 40 square feet in the kiln and 12 cubic feet in the cistern. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 18.)


Coke, anthracite, wood and peat were all used as fuel in kilns. The choice of fuel was determined by price, locality and the colour of malt to be produced. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 85.)


Brewers could get any colour malt they wanted, not just pale, amber or brown, but any shade between. Either by malting themselves or by instructing the maltster exactly what colour they wanted. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, pages 21-22.) There was, in any case, considerable variation in the colour of malt from different sources. "The shades of amber malt, in particular are so many . . ." (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 499.)


The kiln was heated slowly, the temperature slowly increasing over the first 12 hours. The intensity of the final temperature was determined by the type of malt being made. The malt went through each shade, starting at and ending up as high-dried brown, if the process was carried that far. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 25.) "The drying is finished by a clear sweet fire, increasing the strength according to the colour required." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 25.) "Coloured malt will require, towards the finish of the drying, some dry billet wood, of beech or birch" (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 26.)


The use of wood in the final stages of kilning gave malt a deeper colour, something which became to be highly-valued with the advent of Porter. Maltsters adapted their methods to produce this type of highly coloured malt. In the early 18th century maltsters in Hertfordshire and Berkshire (the main suppliers of malt to London) had used almost exclusively straw as fuel for their kilns. They began to use beech or birch wood in the final stages of kilning. Some even used more expensive oak for this purpose as it gave an even stronger colour and flavour. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 484-485.) London brewers, who had scorned smoked malt in the 18th century were, by the 19th century, demanding it.


The high temperatures used in the production of coloured malts meant many had lost all their diastase. "the old-fashioned blown, and even some of the ambers, do nothing more than passively dissolves in the mash, through having been deprived of their activity by heat." Presumably, as all grists by then contained a high proportion of pale malt, this did not cause problems in the mash. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 500.)


Here's a cautionary tale of the dangers of malt:


"Malt newly pulverised is inflammable and apparently electrical. The destruction of Barclay's brewhouse, London, in 1832, was caused by the accident, that a man happened to lift one of the covers upon the box of the Jacob's ladder which conveys the malt to the hopper, and to thrust a lighted candle amongst the fine powder-like malt that was flying about when the ladder was in motion. Undoubtedly, the dry state of the grain, and its electrical condition, arising from friction in breakage between the rolls, had occasioned a state of gradual decomposition, and brought some hydrogen into the box from the vast quantity of malt that was being crushed at once, and hence its inflammability; but the danger of such an accident does not arise when the process of crushing has been ended, and the gases have been allowed to subside." (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 98-99.)




The authorities took great pains to prevent the use of unmalted, i.e. untaxed grains. The penalties for breaking the rules were severe:


"This Act [the 1830 Excise Act] continued in force, although during the year 1847 a further Act was passed permitting brewers to use sugar in the brewing or making of beer. The collection of duty in terms of malt used led, notwithstanding, to much fraud and deception, and for fiscal reasons again, it was found expedient to pass a more stringent Act to prevent the possibility of employing raw grain. This was in the year 1855. The enactment is contained in 18 and 19 Vict., cap. 94, sec. 36, and again it is interesting to follow the exact wording:—



"And for preventing fraud and evasion of the duty of Excise on malt by the use of raw or unmalted corn or grain in the brewing of beer for sale, be it enacted that it shall not be lawful for any brewer of beer for sale to have in his brewery or in any premises belonging or adjacent thereto, whether the same shall be entered by him or not, any raw or unmalted corn or grain whatsoever, either whole or unground, or ground or bruised, except corn or grain not ground or braised being in premises entered by such brewer for the purpose of making malt, and all raw or unmalted corn or grain which shall be found in such brewery or other premises except as aforesaid, and also all malted corn or grain, whether whole or unground, or ground or bruised, with which such raw or unmalted corn or grain may be mixed, shall be forfeited, and the brewer for every such offence shall forfeit the sum of £200."


Section 37 enacts:—



"That no brewer of beer for sale shall have or use, for the purpose of grinding, crushing, or braising malt, any mill-stones, or any mill constructed otherwise than with metal rollers only, such rollers not being fluted but having plain and smooth surfaces, and no malt which shall be ground by any means or crushed or bruised otherwise than by means of such metal rollers as aforesaid, shall be used by or be received into the possession of any such brewer."


The penalty in this case was a forfeit of £200. The object of this section was to prevent barley or other raw grain being ground with malt, it being known that in such case smooth metal rollers would be unfit for the purpose, and that either fluted or stone mills would be necessary. Precautions were further taken to prevent raw grain passing into the brewery under the style of roasted malt, and according to the instructions given to the Excise officers, it was not deemed malted if the plumule of 95 per cent. of it did not extend one-half the length of the grain. The preparation of roasted malt was also strictly under Excise supervision."
"Food & sanitation, Volume 4", 1894, page 102.


It's worth noting the particular efforts of the authorities to prevent the roasting of unmalted grains. Yet some still persist in the fantasy of Guinness cleverly using roast barley instead of black malt in the early 19th century.






Pale maltIt took between three and a half and four days to kiln pale malt. For the first 24 hours the temperature was kept at 80º to 84º F, the malt being turned once or twice. In the second 24 hours, the temperature rose between 6º and 10º F, up to a maximum of 90º F. During the second day, the malt was turned three or four times. During the third 24 hours the temperature was 95º to 98º F, the malt being turned three or four times again. In the final 24 hours, the temperature was slowly raised to 120º F. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 87-88.)


Great care was taken in the preparation of pale malt for India Ale. The kilns were placed at least 14 feet above the fire. Tubes were run directly from the furnace to pass hot air through the grains. The idea being to have as much control over the temperature as possible. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 88.)




Brown maltBefore the drying process was completed, the grains were sprinkled with a little water in the kiln. Dried beech or other wood was added to the fire for the final stages of drying to generate an intense heat. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 88-89.) The barley used to make brown and blown malt was second in quality with regard to size, but needed to be sound and able to germinate as well as the very best. (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 208.)


"the corn is laid with great care on the kiln, not exceeding one and a half inch in depth, is turned only once; the entire drying takes from one hour to one hour and ten minutes, and requires eight faggots to each quarter of malt, and the extreme heat is not thrown in until the steam or moisture is off." (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 208.)




Blown MaltA variety of brown malt made around London was called blown malt. Germinated barley was spread quite wet on the kiln, just half an inch to an inch thick. It was dried quickly by an intense fire, fuelled with either straw, wood or fern. The grains were constantly turned to prevent them burning. The sudden heat caused the grains to swell in size, a bit like popcorn, and gave the malt its name. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 89-90.)




Porter maltI think this is describing a form of brown malt:


"As porter is made by provincial brewers in the same utensils as those in which they make their ales, it is unnecessary either to repeat a description of them or to notice their dimensions ; but it may not be unacceptable to the reader to notice the method of making porter-malt; as every brewer should have some knowledge of the mode of preparing it,—although it has been nearly displaced, in large establishments, by the more profitable use of pale malt in porter-brewing.


The form of the genuine porter malt-kiln differs from the common description for drying pale malt. The floor of the former is laid with tiles in the usual manner where such are used. The fire-chamber beneath is built with brick, within the square apartment, in the shape of an inverted pyramid, in the apex of which the furnace is placed. The furnace is arched with firebrick, and extends 2.5 feet within the chamber, to disperse the heat equally to the floor above.


The malt to be prepared for porter-brewing is half made in the usual manner for drying pale malt. It is then divided into two or three parts, which are dried and finished on the kiln at such a high temperature as speedily turns it of a brown-colour, but without scorching or charring it; and converts it into porter malt.


It is first dried with coke in the usual manner. Birch-cuttings, or beech, when the former cannot be procured, are prepared to blow it, as it is termed, on the kiln, and give it the brown colour and that bitter principle which is so desirable to the taste in the consumption of porter.


When the malt is spread on the kiln-floor, the furnace is gradually charged with the wood-cuttings until a temperature upwards of 200° is obtained. It is carefully watched by the maltster, until it begins to burst by the escape of the air confined between the kernel and husk of the grain. It is now turned by the maltster and his assistants with shovel and broom, working it quickly, and sweeping each division, as it is proceeded with; and this process is repeated until it is judged sufficiently brown for its purpose.


By this incipient charring its germinating principle is destroyed, and it loses the capacity of yielding sugar, by mashing, in the proportion of twenty per cent to pale malt made from the same description of barley."
"Brewing and Distillation" by Thomas Thomson and William Stewart, 1849, pages 278-279.






Patent maltWhen all forms of colouring were made illegal in 1816, Porter brewers had a big problem. How could they brew a beer of the right colour when using mostly pale malt? The answer was provided by Daniel Wheeler, who, by roasting malt in a way similar to coffee beans, created a malt capable of colouring a large quantity of wort. Pale malt was roasted at 360 to 400º F in metal cylinders, which revolved over a furnace. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 90.) Wheeler acquired a patent for the process, hence the name patent malt. It was also known as black malt or roast malt.


Not everyone was a fan of black malt. Tizard wrote "Allusion has been made in former pages to the improvement which has of late years been made in the metropolitan ales, while on the other hand their beers have, in too many instances, declined in virtue and beauty, which circumstance is not wholly, as we have seen, though in part attributable to the introduction of Wheeler's patent malt, or such as is roasted in imitation of it; the "nappy brown stout" produced from amber malt, having fallen off, and in many houses a black sulky beverage being substituted in its stead, on the taste of which the stranger experiences a shake, as sudden and electrical as that which seizes a spaniel when quitting water." (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 495.)


Because of problems it could cause in the mash tun, black malt was sometimes added in the copper, though that wasn't trouble-free, either. Insoluble parts of the malt could stick to the bottom of the copper and burn or even cause the metal to overheat and crack. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 495-496.) Some brewers mashed a portion of the black malt and added the rest to the copper. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 90.) As late as 1933, Barclay Perkins were still boiling an amount of black malt in the copper when brewing their IBSt (Russian Stout).


Black malt varied greatly in quality and colour. Cheaper versions were made from poor-quality barley or had not been properly malted before roasting. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 496.) "The colour is often so black that it resembles mere cinders, and the whole corn is puffed up to an enormous size . . . and it adheres together in bunches, through the bursting of the shells and the exudation and fixation of the gummy matter when in the roasting cylinders." (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 496-497.) Such malt, because it was charred into insolubility, yielded poor colour and flavour. Porter brewed from it would lose much of its colour after a couple of months as the colouring matter precipitated out. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 497.)


Properly made black malt had an even chocolate brown colour and its grains did not clump together. Because it had been properly malted, it contained much more sugar than the cheap kind. "it contains a much larger quantity of colouring matter of a superior kind, consisting chiefly of caramel, similar to the colouring matter of former times: being burnt saccharum and mucilage, which impart an agreeable odour to the beer, and maintains its colour with tenacity. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 497.) Tizard went on to add that all the major London and Dublin breweries used good quality black malt in moderate quantities. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 498.)


The roasting of malt was regulated by its own Act of Parliament. Roasting had to take place at least a mile from the malt-house. This led to the trade of Malt Roaster and to a concentration of the trade in the hands of a few specialists, mostly located in London. (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 69.) Properly malted barley gave more colour than unmalted barley, but not as much as partially malted barley. That, along with the duty saved by steeping for as short a period as possible (the volume of the malt was measured for excise purposes at the end of steeping) meant barley for making black malt was rarely properly malted. (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 69.)


"The word malt is greatly libelled in these Roasting house; it being little better than roasted barley. The corn is only steeped for forty hours, being the shortest time the law allows, consequently pays at least 2s. 6d. per quarter less than the produce of malt, and is usually thrown upon the kiln from three to four days after being emptied from the cistern." (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, pages 68-69.)


Due to the problems it could cause in the mash tun, Tizard advised mashing black malt by itself in a special vessel. It could then be mixed with the rest of the wort in the underback. It was mashed repeatedly until all the colour had been extracted. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 498.)




Other grains"Malting is not confined to barley, but oats, peas, beans, maize, buck-wheat, and common wheat, which are all capable of being malted, and have been experimented upon, but barley is the most prized grain." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 20.)


"Wheat, on account of its weight, has had many trials, to bring it into more general use among brewers; but, from many communications the author has had with those who have brewed with wheat malt, either alone, or mixed, complain of a heaviness of flavour, and not altogether so pleasant as the liquor brewed from barley malt." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 20.)


Let me explain. Malt was taxed per bushel, a measure of volume. A bushel of wheat weighed on average 67 pounds, a bushel of barley 56 pounds, at most. So you got about 20% more weight of grain for the same amount of tax when using wheat.


Wheat, being heavier, took longer to malt than barley. Oats, being lighter, took less time. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 26.) 13 bushels of barley malt were the equivalent of 9 bushels of wheat, 10 of rye or 19 of oats, in terms of extract. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 46.)


At times when barley was expensive, considerable amounts of wheat were malted and used in brewing. Tizard recommended malting wheat mixed with barley, to protect the tender skin of the wheat grains. Likewise in the mash, wheat malt was best mixed with coarser barley grains to avoid wheat flour clogging the mash tun. Wheat malt also required less crushing the barley malt as it was more inclined to turn into flour. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 47.)


Oats were not much used in this period. Oat malt incurred the same duty as barley, but produced not much more than half the extract. Only after 1880, when the malt tax was repealed, were oats an economic proposition and start being used again. Hence the appearance of oatmeal Stout at the end of the 19th century. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 51.)


Big, a type of primitive barley, was malted and used for brewing in Scotland and Ireland. The quantities used were quite modest, about 10% of the amount of barley malted. Big malt was taxed at a lower rate than barley malt - 2 shillings, as opposed to 2 shillngs and seven pence for barley. (Source: "Brewing and Distillation" by Thomas Thomson and William Stewart, Edinburgh, 1849, page 109.)






SugarIn 1811 brewing with unmalted grain and sugar was outlawed by act of parliament in response to falling revenue from the malt tax. Sugar, in the form of caramel, was still permitted for colouring Porter. The following year, 1812, sugar was allowed to be used for brewing again. As the amount received through the malt tax was still disappointing, a full Reinheitsgebot was introduced in 1816. Malt and hops were the only ingredients permitted. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 490-491.)


Some claimed sugar could not only be used in conjunction with malt, but to completely repalce it. Professor Donovan wrote of ale made entirely from sugar "To persons who have acquired an inveterate prediliction for the abominable and varied flavours which the skill of the brewer enables him to communicate, this pure and simple drink may be less pleasing; but it is suingular how quickly the consumer acquires a high relish for it, and prefers it to every other. There is a purity of taste belonging to it quite different from the indescribable jumble of tastes so perseptible in common ales; and a light sharpness, combined with tenuity, which is more agreeable than the glutinous, mucilaginous softness of even the best ales. But it has one advantage which places it above all competition, and that is, its lightness on the stomach; this, when compared with the sickly heaviness of malt ales, is really remarkable." (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 278.)


In 1847 the use of sugar for brewing was made legal. (Source: "Food & sanitation, Volume 4", 1894, page 102.)


HopsThe hop harvest was very inconsistent. The plant was susceptible to damage from cold winds, night frost, pests and disease. Goldings were the most tender. Canterbury and Flemish hops were hardier. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 28.) The price for hops could vary wildly, because of the uncertain nature of the harvest. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 29.) "The produce of the hop grounds are the most precarious of any known agricultural produce - in some seasons all but a total failure, in others so excessive as to reduce the price to little more than the duty." (Source: "An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 44.)


The following tables show just how much hop prices varied. No wonder wise brewers bought in extra in years of surplus.




Price of hops in shilling per cwt:



1815



193



1816



278



1817



445



1818



518



1819



115



1820



85



1821



85



1822



70



1823



186



1824



124



1825



455



1826



80



1827



90



1828



93



1829



119



1830



145



1831



100



1832



140



1833



125



1834



130



1835



80



1836



80



1837



73



1838



87



1839



95



1840



132



1841



136



1842



86



Source:



"An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 233









About two thirds of hops were grown in either Kent or Sussex. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 30.) In 1819, based on the duty charged on hops, the following were the districts producing the largest quantity of hops:




Sussex

32.1%



Rochester (Kent)

30.01%



Canterbury (Kent)

21.19%



Essex

0.96%



Hereford

8.21%



Lincoln

2.03%



Sarum

1.98%



Worcester

1.86%





Kent, Sussex and Hereford & Worcester between them produced 93% of the total crop. (Source: "The Spirit, Wine Dealer's and Publican's Guide", by Edward Palmer, London, 1824 pages 247-249.)


By 1848, hop-growing was even more concentrated in Kent, Sussex and Worcester.




Hop duty, acres of hops by district 1848



district

acres

% of crop



Kent

26.063,00

54,71%



Sussex

11.592,25

30,28%



Worcester

7.915,50

7,81%



Farnham

2.898,00

6,07%



Essex

342,00

0,51%



North Clays

361,75

0,55%



rest of Britain

60,50

0,07%



Total

49.233,00

100,00%



Source:



"An Historical Account of the Malt Trade and Laws" by William Ford, London, 1849, page 229



Notes:



Weight of hops calculated for duty paid, based on a rate of 19s 7.5d per cwt.








The hops a brewer used were not necessarily local. As very few were grown in most parts of the country, this isn't surprising. In Scotland, the preference was for those from Kent, which accounted for 90% of the hops used in Edinburgh. (Source: "Scottish Ale Brewer", WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1847, page 46.)


Yearling hops - those more than 12 month old - were less valuable, selling for 25-30% less than fresh hops. "However carefully they be preserved, this effect will ensue, and, indeed, they will have lost so much of their aroma, as to be unfit to be used for the finer kind of ales." (Source: "Scottish Ale Brewer", WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1847, page 46-47.)


Hops were packaged in two different ways, according to their type. Pale, fine-flavoured hops were packed into sacks called pockets that contained approximately 1.5 cwt (168 pounds). These were mostly purchased by Ale brewers. Strong-flavoured hops came in sacks made of a coarser material called bags, which contained around 3 cwt (336 pounds). Porter and Small Beer brewers were the main buyers of these. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 16.)


To try to prevent hops losing their bitterness, on arrival at the brewery the pockets or bags could be pressed in screw frame, reducing them to two-thirds of their original size. (Source: "Brewing and Distillation" by Thomas Thomson and William Stewart, Edinburgh, 1849, page 172)


Types of hops:


North Clay Hops, were grown on the heavy clay soils of Nottinghamshire and had a "rank" flavour that was highly-prized by some brewers. As the flavour was slow to fade, they were often used in strong Keeping Beers. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 17.) "A strong and rank hop, fit only for porter-brewing, when mellowed by age." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 29.)


Kent Hops were one of the better, more expensive kinds. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 17.)


Golding hops were the best flavoured, but difficult to grow as they were particularly tender. They were mostly grown around Farnham in Surrey. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 29.)


Farnham Hops, from Surrey, were the most expensive and had a delicate flavour. Not everyone was convinced that they were worth the extra that they cost. "Farnham hops, however deserving the reputation they bear, are by no means worth the difference in price given for them" (Source: "A Treatise on Brewing", Richardson.)


Worcester Hops were the mildest. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 17.)


Flemish hops had a large flower, but a low weight and had a flavour unsuitable for Ales. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 29.)


The Canterbury Grape was another well-flavoured variety grown extemsively in Kent and Sussex. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 29.)


The best way to store hops was somewhere dry, closely packed together to exclude the air, which would evaporate the aromatic oils. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 18.)


Levesque recommends matching the colour of hop to the colour of the beer being brewed: "In hopping your beers, use brown hops for brown beer, and pale coloured hops for all pale beers" (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 32.) He also believed hops should not be used too fresh: "New hops should not be brewed until after Christmas, except with a portion of old." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 32.)


Hop dust was used, too. Costing about a quarter of the price of whole hops, a pound of dust was the equivalent of four pounds of whole hops. A proportion could be used in brown and common beer without adversely affecting flavour. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 33.)




WaterThere were quite diverse opinions on the subject of the best brewing water, or liquor as it was called within breweries. "Brewers differ most widely in their opinions of the necessary qualities of water, some preferring hard, others soft, and others again treating the choice indifferently;" (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 105.) Brewing authors were likewise divided, but with a majority having no preference. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 106.)


Tizard was a hard water man. "Water that is free from saline matter, or that holds it in scarcity, is not fit for the brewery, being impotent." The softest water came from snow, followed by rain water. The latter picked up some "sulphate of lime" from the mortar betwween roof tiles. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 107-108.) Next came spring water, which was rain water that had passed through the ground. Its composition varied according to the nature of the ground. In the purest spring water there was a quantity of "carbonate of lime and common salt" as well as air and carbon dioxide. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 108.)


Well water was basically the same as spring water, but could become hard due to accumulated deposits. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 108.) River water was a combination of rain and spring water. The addition of rain water made it, in general, softer that spring water. It contained air and CO2, but little salt or carbonate of lime. The composition varied, depending on the amount rainfall. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 108-109.)


According to Tizard, hard water had a restraining effect on fermentation. Worts brewed from hard water needed to be pitched at a higher temperature - between 10º and 15º F higher than worts from very soft water. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 114.) Attenuation was also lower in hard water worts, leaving a fuller-bodied beer with less tendency to turn sour. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 114.)


The effect of the local water on Burton-brewed beers was already understood. "The Burton ales principally owe their superior quality and uniform permanency to the nature of the water there used, and which, according to the best evidence, is strongly impregnated with this hardener or water, gypsum or sulphate of lime;" (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 114.)


In 1830 a group of Burton brewers took the Society for the Diffusing Useful Knowledge to court for libel over allegations in a book they had published, "A Treatise on the Art of Brewing". The author, Booth, claimed that he could duplicate Burton beer by adding a saline solution, mostly gypsum, to a wort. He accused Burton brewers of doing exactly that, which would have been illegal. What Booth hadn't known, was that Burton water naturally contained a large concentration of gypsum. This came out in court and the Society lost. They were forced to print an apology in the next edition of the book. The judge presiding, Lord Tenterden, summed up saying: "the lovers of Burton ale may now drink it without fear." (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 114-115.)


Bass, Ratcliffe and Gretton revealed that analysis had shown their well water had the following characteristics:




specific gravity:



1.0013






CO2:

7.5 cubic inches per imperial gallon






Solids:

79 grains per imperial gallon, consisting of:









carbonate of lime (chalk)

9.93 grains






sulphate of lime (gypsum)

54.4 grains






muriate of lime (calcium chloride)

13.28 grains






sulphate of magnesia

0.83 grains






total

78.44 grains



Source:



"The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 116.





Water-treatment was recommended for those with water that was too soft. "When waters run off moors and fens, and the brewers in certain districts are compelled to use them for want of better, it will be found desirable to impregnate them second hand with gypsum, or with such limestones as are easily procurable." (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 118.)


Water was filtered before use to remove any suspended particles. Beds of porous material, such as sand, charcoal and limestone, were laid in layers, the coarsest on top, the finest underneath. Water was passed through these beds. The disadvantage of this system was that over time dirt would get stuck in the beds and clog them up. There were various alternative patented machines, with filters which could be more easily cleaned or replaced. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 118-120.)


Tizard maintained that hard water was best for brewing, particularly that containing gypsum. He disagreed that the extract was worse than with soft water, as some other authors claimed. His main reason for preferring hard water was the greater stability of beer brewed from it, especially in the summer. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 122-123.)


Roberts took the opposite view, "Most well waters are very hard, some more so than others, and such water should not be taken except in a case of emergency" (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 251.) He claimed that soft water, if mashed the same way, would produce a wort with a gravity 5º higher than hard water. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 252.)




YeastBrewers and chemists were still struggling to work out the true nature of yeast. Most did not believe that it was a living organism.


It had been observed that fermentation could occur in one of two ways: spontaneously or artificially, that is by the addition of yeast. Yet yeast wasn't seen as an essential part of the process. "But yeast cannot be said to be the fermenting principle. Yeast is a combination of various substances derived from malt which are agglutinated and separate from the pure wort during fermentation. Dr,, Thomson has shewn that none of the substances which compose yeast has the power of fermentation; and comes to the conclusion that can, perhaps, ever possibly arrived at, - that it is sugar in a state of partial decomposition that acts as the fermenting principle, and which is brought over from the wort along with all the other substances contained in yeast." (Source: "Brewing and Distillation" by Thomas Thomson and William Stewart, Edinburgh, 1849, pages 179-180)


Levesque details a method of spontaneously fermenting Ale. After the boiling wort had broken "discharge the whole together, hops and all, into the cask in which the liquor is intended to be kept, and bung down, for the present, the cask then being quite full: at your leisure fix the safetly-valve, and there let the liquor remain untouched, to ferment and depurate, without any addition of yeast, which will require 12 months for ordinary ale. The vacuum caused in cooling, will furnish room for the expansion occasioned by this mode of spontaneous fermentation. The time required for fermentation and depuration will be from eighteen months to two years, for the strongets ales; or of a gravity of 45º, in a temperate cellar." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, pages 46-47.)




AdulterationThe 1816 Act stipulating the use of just malt and hops in brewing explicity forbade a list of other ingredients:


"No druggist, vender of or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other person, shall sell or deliver to any licenced brewer, dealer in or retailer of beer, knowing him to be such, or shall sell or deliver to any person on account of or in trust for any such brewer, dealer or retailer, any liquor called by the name of or sold as colouring, from whatever material the same may be made, or any preparation other than unground brown malt for darkening the colour of worts, or beer, or any liquor or preparation made use of for darkening the colour of worts or beer, or any molasses, honey, vitriol, quassia, cocculus Indian, grains of paradise, Guinea pepper or opium, or any extract or preparation of molasses, or any article or preparation to be used in worts or beer for or as a substitute for malt or hops; and if any druggist shall offend in any of these particulars, such liquor preparation, molasses, &c. shall be forfeited and may be seized by any officer of Excise, and the person so offending shall for each offence forfeit £500."


There are some pretty scary items included, such as vitriol and opium. That they are mentioned by name implies that they were in reasonably common use.


The penalties for those caught using illegal ingredients were severe. Using sugar, molasses or honey - 100 pound fine. Using hop substitutes - 20 pound fine. Using drugs - one hundred pound fine and confiscation of utensils. (Source: "The Spirit, Wine Dealer's and Publican's Guide", by Edward Palmer, London, 1824 page 17.)




Brewing equipmentNew developments such as mashing machines and refrigerators were starting to give larger breweries a distinct advantage over their smaller competitors and domestic brewers. They enabled big brewers to brew more quickly, more efficiently, in any weather and to have a much greater degree of control over the fermentation process.


That they weren't keen on a wood taste getting into the beer is clear. This is how wood used in the construction of vessels was treated:


"English or Hamburgh oak, and Dantzic deal, ought to be seasoned twelve months at least previous to manufacture; subsequently undergo a thorough seasoning of salt, quick lime, and boiling liquor; and, finally, of malt dust, spent hops, and boiling liquor, that it may imbibe as little of the taste of the new timber as possible." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 9.)


The following equipment could be found in a modern brewery of the period.


Liquor-back. Made of cast-iron and situated in the roof of the brewery. A capacity of at least 10 barrels per quarter of malt used in a brew was recommended. An exposed position was not a disadvantage: "let the liquor come from whatever source it may, it will certainly be much improved by being exposed to the sun and air"(Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 7.)


Copper. There were two basic types: open and domed. They were made from thick copper and were twice as wide as they were deep. Often breweries had two coppers: the liquor copper, used to heat the water for mashing and the boiling-off which was used for boiling wort. The liquor copper needed a capacity of 3 barrels for every quarter of malt mashed, the boiling-off copper two barrels per quarter. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 8.)


Mash tun. It was constructed, like a barrel, from wooden staves bound by iron hoops. The staves were two inches thick and made of oak, the bottom of two inch Dantzic deal. Oak was not suitable for the bottom of the tun as it would be warped by the hot water used for mashing. There was false bottom made of cast-iron and four or five taps with a two-inch bore above the underback. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 9.)


Sparger. This was in common use in Scottish breweries and had already spread to England. It consisted of a horizontal tube with holes along its whole length. It was suspended above the mash tun and rotated about a central axis. A tube, connected to the water supply, was fastened to it. The holes were positioned so that the water came out of them horizontally and propelled the tube around its axis. In this way it automatically distributed the water equally over the whole surface of the grains. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, pages 184-185.)


Underback. This was also made of oak with a Dantzic deal bottom. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 9.)


Hop-back. Square and constructed of Dantzic deal with a cast-iron bottom. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 10.)


Coolers. Made from Dantzic deal, with 6-inch deep sides and placed at a slight angle to help drain off the wort. The wood was given a smooth finish to minimise places for dirt to accumulate. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 10.)


Refrigerator. If used, only half the number of coolers were needed. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 10.)


Gyle tuns. Made from 3-inch English oak. One type was square. Another was round, airtight and fitted with a safety valve to allow excess CO2 to escape. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 10.) According to Levesque, until around 1795 gyle tuns had been embedded in the ground, with just the top metre or so above ground level. This had the great advantage of helping keep the wort at a constant temperature. These were replaced with raised gyle tuns, which were easier draw wort from. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 54.) Levesque recommended that underground gyle tuns were much better for small breweries, where the volumes of wort were relatively small. He suggested sealed tuns in the form of a cube, fitted with a safety valve. He claimed worts could be cooled as low as 45º F in such tuns. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 56.)


Attemperators. Pipes fitted inside gyle tuns through which cold water was passed to control the temperature of the wort. It was attemperator and refrigerators that allowed large breweries to brew all year.


Cleansing casks. Rather than putting retail casks on stillions for cleansing, special cleansing casks, holding around six barrels were sometimes used. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 11.)


Stillions. "Stillions are to be built three inch Dantzic deal, a whole plank in depth, bottom one inch and half, and about two inches wider at the top than at bottom, which ought to be for barrels 18 inches wide, 21 inches for hogsheads, 24 inches for puncheons, and so on in proportion for larger or smaller casks: the widths here recommended ar favourable to filling up witth clean beer, and to contain the yeast; a side plug-hole is necessary to draw off the beer, bored with a taper bit; the hole inside to be within about three quarters of an inch of the sole edge or bottom, to keep back the yeast; another hole of 3 inches in the bottom, to get the yeast out; and the stillion laid to a current of one inch to ten feet." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 11.)


Settling back. A shallow vessel, six inches deep, in which beer from the stillions was left to clear before being used to top up the cleansing casks. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 11.)


Vats. Made from 1.5 to 2 inch English oak. Vats of various sizes were needed for a variety of purposes: ageing strong Ale and Stout, blending worts from different brews, or mixing worts of different quality. They varied in size between the volume of one and three brews. Vats could be filled several times without cleaning out the lees, especially with Porter or Stout. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, pages 11-12.)


Casks were cleaned by filling with boiling water and being left to stand for 15 minutes, rolling occasionally. At the end of the process they were rinsed with cold water and left, without bungs, to dry. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, pages 12-13.)


British brewers did not use pitch-lined casks:


"The German brewers, who have the repute of being far our superiors, have doubtlessly seen the inconvenience arising from the casks absorbing the beer, and inflicting injury by admitting the atmospheric air through their pores, both casks and contents suffering upon the decomposition of the imbibed fluids, and the consequent acidity of the wood. Hence their precaution of lining their casks with pitch. No such protection is taken by other brewers; but notwithstanding that such or any similar " new-fangled notion " may be jeered at by the anti-innovators of the British brewery, the subject assuredly deserves a little thought; and the author suggests that brewers' casks may be rendered more durable, and their pores may be effectually stopped, by subjecting all casks, whether old or new, to the following process."
"The theory and practice of brewing illustrated", by William Tizard, 1850, page 489.




Rake mashing machineThe first type of mashing machine, invented 1807, was the rake masher. It replaced men working with oars to mix the malt and water. Not only did it save on labours costs, it also mixed more quickly and more thoroughly, helping increase the efficiency of the mash. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, pages 39.)




Brewing techniques

Grinding maltMalt was ground a day before rtequired to allow it to cool. When more than one type of malt was being used, the pale malt was ground before the darker malts. Patent malt was ground last of all and ground finer than other malts. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 34.)




HygieneBrewing texts of the period were very clear about the need for absolute cleanliness. "Without care and cleanliness, the brewer may soon go to ruin." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 35.)


Chadwick warned of the necessity for cleaning caks well. The only satisfactory method was to remove the heads and brush the inside with a stiff birch broom. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 58-59.)


In hot weather wort could easily be tainted or "foxed" in wooden coolers. Quick lime, mixed with boiling water, was put into the coolers to a depth a little greater than was usual for worts. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 36.) Coolers could also be filled, while not in use, with a solution of lime as a a preventative measure.


Levesque recommended lime for cleaning wooden vessels. "limed liquor ought to be used for washing the brewhouse or utensils; and all false bottoms should be scraped cleanly and laid under liquor, as well as the utensils, in the intervals of brewing." (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 36.) One bushel of lime was dissolved in 20 barrels of water to make an "anti-putrescent" solution for cleaning purposes. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 36.)


The copper was scoured after every third brewing. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 37.) Spent grains were removed from the mash tun immediately after the end of the last mash, to prevent the wood becoming tainted. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 38.)




AdulterationAdulteration was still rife.


"Porter And Stout, And Their Adulterations.


The following are the conclusions arrived at from the analyses instituted of samples of London Stout and Porter obtained from the taps of the several London porter-brewers, and from publicans : —


That the samples of Stout either obtained from agents, or purchased at the taps of several of the principal London porter-brewers, were considerably stronger than those procured from publicans: the alcohol, of specific gravity .796, temperature 60° Fahr., contained in the former samples, ranged from 7.15 per cent, the highest, to 4.53 the lowest; whereas that of the stouts procured from publicans varied, with one exception, from 4.87 per cent, to 3.25 per cent.


That the same difference of strength also characterised the various samples of Porter procured from the two different sources ; the amount of alcohol in the porters obtained from the taps varying from 4.51 per cent, to 2.42 per cent. ; whereas those purchased of publicans ranged from 3.97 per cent, to 1.81 per cent.


That in nearly all the stouts and porters salt was present, often in considerable amount.


That in some of the samples cane-sugar and treacle were likewise present.


There is reason to believe that the variation of strength would have been still more considerable had the samples been procured direct from the several breweries, instead of, as in most cases, from the brewers' taps.


This diminution of strength in the beer purchased of publicans is only to be satisfactorily explained by the addition in many cases of water, this addition being no doubt sometimes practised by the publicans and other retailers of malt liquors.


The addition of water constitutes the principal, but not the only, adulteration to which these beverages are subjected.


Thus the addition of water reduces the strength, flavour, and colour, to such an extent as to necessitate in some cases the further adulteration of the beer, and this is usually effected by means of a very coarse description of brown sugar, containing much treacle, and known as Foots, and salt.


Since the use of cane-sugar is permitted in the brewery, we did not attempt to ascertain which of the samples subjected to analysis contained that substance, because, had we found it in any of the samples, we should still have been unable to have declared whether the brewers or the publicans were the parties who made use of it. We believe, however, that the brewers do not often employ sugar, since it is alleged that beer made with any considerable proportion of cane-sugar does not keep so well as that prepared from malt only. Moreover, the price of sugar forms an obstacle to its use in breweries.


It appears, from the analyses, that salt is almost constantly present in porter. This addition we know is made in the first instance by the brewers themselves; but there is also no doubt that a further quantity of it is frequently used by the publican to assist in bringing up the flavour of beer which has been reduced in strength by the addition of water. The quantity of salt contained in porter is often sufficiently large to communicate a perceptibly saline taste to the mouth. The salt is used by the brewers in the following manner : — It is first mixed up in a tub with flour, usually wheat-flour, and the mixture is cast by handfuls over the surface of the wort in the cooling vat It is said to assist in the preservation and fining of the wort, and it is alleged that these are the only purposes for which it is employed by the brewer.


The three usual and principal adulterations of porter consist, then, of water, by which its strength is reduced and its bulk increased, and sugar and salt, whereby its colour and flavour are in a measure restored. But there is good reason for believing, from evidence given before a recent Committee of the House of Commons on Public Houses, of which Mr. Villiers was the chairman, that other adulterations are practised, and that sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, salt of steel. or sulphate of iron, and cocculus indicus, are likewise not unfrequently used, and this both by the publican and the brewer.


Not only is the fact of the addition of water proved by the present analyses, but evidence of another character has been supplied by different parties to the Committee above referred to, showing the same fact. In particular, it has been proved that a publican could not afford to sell porter at the price which he pays for it, in the state in which it is supplied to him by the brewers, and realise a profit upon it, unless he had recourse to adulteration."
Source: "Food and its adulterations" by Arthur Hill Hassall, 1855, pages xxvii - xxviii




The 1830 Beer Act was very specific as to what would happen to anyone selling watered or adulterated beer.


". . . and if any person so licensed as aforesaid shall knowingly sell any beer, ale, or porter made otherwise than from malt and hops, or shall mix or cause to be mixed any drugs or other pernicious ingredients with any beer sold in his house or premises, or shall fraudulently dilute or in any way adulterate any such beer, such offender shall for the first offence forfeit any sum not less than ten pounds nor more than twenty pounds, as the justices before whom such offender shall be convicted of such offence shall adjudge ; and for the second such offence such offender shall be adjudged to be disqualified from selling beer, ale, or porter by retail for the term of two years, or to forfeit any sum of money not less than twenty pounds nor more than fifty pounds, at the discretion of the justices before whom such offender shall be adjudged guilty of such second offence ; and if any offender convicted of such offence as last aforesaid shall during such term of two years sell any beer, ale, or porter by retail, either in the house and premises mentioned in the licence of such offender, or in any other place, he shall forfeit any sum not less twenty-five pounds nor more than fifty pounds, and shall be subject to a like penalty at any and every house or place where he shall commit such offence ; and if any person shall at any time, during any term in which it shall not be lawful for beer to be sold by retail on the premises of any offender, sell any beer by retail on such premises, knowing that it was not lawful to be sold, such offender shall forfeit any sum not less than ten pounds nor more than twenty pounds, as the convicting justices shall adjudge."
"A collection of statutes connected with the general administration of the law", 1836, pages 910-911


To put the minimum 10 quid fine into context, remember that a pint of beer only cost 3d to 4d at the annual rent of a beerhouse was just 2 pounds. Ten pounds was a substantial sum. Anyone caught twice, risked losing his licence for two years. Yet despite these harsh punishments, adulteration was still commonplace. There must have been an awful lot of money in it.




Ale Brewing

MashingThe amount water required to obtain a specific quantity of beer was carefully calculated. Each quarter of malt absorbed 48 gallons of water. Another 20% was lost through evaporation during boiling, cooling and fermentation. So to brew 2 hogsheads (108 gallons) from 1 quarter of malt:


absorbed by malt 48 gallons
beer 108 gallons
evaporation 20% of 108 = 22 gallons
total water required 178 gallons


(Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 23-24.)




The mash tun was filled with water at 174º F and the malt then added and stirred until all the grains are wet. Any remaining hot water was then poured in and the mixture mashed, or stirred, for 20 to 30 minutes. The tun was then covered with empty sacks to retain the heat and left to stand for 90 minutes. About half the total amount of water was used for the first mash.


The tap was opened and the first runnings returned to the mash until they run clear. The wort was between 145º and 150º when run off. There followed a second mash with a striking heat of 184º F and a third at 194º F. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 24-25.)


To help prevent the wort spoiling, hops, sealed in a bag, were put into the underback. These hops were later re-used during the boil. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 27.)


A third mash was performed while the first two worts were boiling with the hops. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 31.)






Mashing schema Table Ale 1834



pale malt

20 bushels





















Kent hops

20 pounds





















mash

water, gallons

water heat

minutes mashed

stood minutes

wort gallons

gravity

boiled minutes





1



190

174º



40



110



70



1099.72

} 70





2



65

184º



18



90



65



1094.18

} (with wort 1)





3



108

194º



20



120



120



1049.86

}





4



40

cold sparged









40



1038.78

} 90





5



22

cold sparged









22



1016.62

}



total



425



0









317



1066.48






Source:



Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835.














Mashing schema Table Beer 1834



pale malt

20 bushels






























Kent hops

20 pounds






























mash

water, gallons

water heat

minutes mashed

stood minutes

wort gallons

gravity

boiled minutes

wort gallons

wort gravity

produce per quarter



1

152

174º

30

120

80

1066.48

} 80












2

65

184º

20

90

65

1049.86

} (with wort 1)












3

125

194º

20

98

125

1020.775

}

250

1047.367

79 lb



4

25

cold sparged







25

1013.85

} 120












total

367

0







295

1038.78




250

1047.367

79 lb



Source:
Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835










Party-gylingThe hydrometer (or saccharometer as it was then usually called in breweries) was an essential tool for this process. "The saccharometer will thus inform you what strength beer you may expect from your malt, and will enable you in brewing to make two sorts of beer, of different strengths, by mixing the worts of different gravities according to taste or fancy." (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 30.) This method of party-gyling was common amongst London breweries. Whitbread almost never made just one beer from a brew. They usually made either a Porter and a Stout or two different strength Stouts.


This was quite different from the 18th century method of party-gyling, where the wort from each mash was used to make a different beer. The first wort was used for a Strong Ale, the second for a Common Ale and the third for Small Beer. In the 19th century system, each of the beers contained a portion of each strength wort, blended together to obtain the target gravity.


Whitbread were still using this method for most of their brews in the 1950's. It's not uncommon amongst traditional British breweries today. A good example is Fuller's, where Chiswick Bitter, London Pride and ESB are party-gyled in this way.


"Every brewer is sensible of the inferiority of weak worts from party gyles" Tizard warns. Which was why brewers usually increased by 3º to 5º the gravity of standard-strength Ales party-gyled with a stronger brew. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 187.)






SpargingChadwick describes the method employed by brewers in Edinburgh. They made just one mash and, once the first wort had been run off, sprinkled water carefully over the grains whilst the tap was still open. This sparge was performed by pouring water onto a board suspended above the mash tun. The board was perforated with holes which spread the water evenly over the surface of the mash, much like the rose of a watering can. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 25-26.)


Despite it's description as a Scottish process, the example brewing logs Chadwick provided list sparges. The difference is that in the Scottish method there was a single mash before the sparging started. The English logs show three mashes followed by sparges with quite modest volumes of water. For the Table Beer 25 out of the 367 gallons of water used, for the Table Ale 62 out of 425 gallons.


"Fly Mashing, which is modernly called Sparging, is to pass the succeeding liquors over the goods, while the tap is spending"
Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 44.


According to Tizard, there were several variations on sparging. The most time-consuming was to begin sparging as soon as the tap had been opened to draw off the wort. The idea was to add fresh water to the mash at the same rate as the wort was running off. Other brewers waited until half or three-quarters of the malt had been drawn off before beginning to sparge. However, most brewers still mashed ay least twice before sparging as they believed that this was necessaary for a complete extraction of sugars. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 181.) Some breweries mashed as many as four or five times. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 183.)


Roberts contended that it was best to start sparging when about two-thirds of the wort had been run off, using water at between 190º and 195º F. After the first sparge the tap was left open and wort continually run off. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 pages 259-260.)


Tizard maintained that a single mash, as in the Scottish method of brewing, was sufficient if carried out properly. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 183.) It was important that the sparging water be at least as warm as that used in the first mash. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 193.)






BoilingAs soon as the second mash was completed, the first two worts were transferred to the copper to be boiled. The quantity of hops used depended upon a number of factors: the season (more hops were required in summer), the length of time the beer was to be kept before consumption and the taste of the brewer.


The usual way for indicating hopping rates in the 18th and 19th centuries was pounds of hops per quarter of malt. It's a system that allows recipes to be easily scaled for different gravity beers. Chadwick recommended 6 pounds per quarter in cold weather, 8 to 10 pounds in warm. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 32.)


The hops were first infused with boiling water before being added to the wort. Water was thought to extract the flavour components from hops better than wort. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 33.) Though not all authors agreed on this. Levesque was very much against steeping: "The author does not, under any circumstances, approve of the erroneous and anti-chemical method of steeping hops, either in hot or cold liquor" (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 49.) A gently rolling boil was preferred to prevent too many volatile hop oils evaporating. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 32.) To stop caramelisation or burning, the wort was stirred during the boil using a mashing oar. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 33-34.)


Worts were boiled until they broke, that is when sediment they contained precipitated out. It was essential that this occurred if the finished beer were to be of good quality. As the time before this happened varied, it was impossible to give a fixed length for the boil. Continuing after the wort had broken was inadvisable as further boiling would only damage the wort. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 34-35.)


The first two (strong) worts were boiled for 30 to 45 minutes. The later, weak runnings two to two and a half hours in order to concentrate the wort. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 35.) Levesque suggested boiling the first wort for 1 hour and the second for two hours. If there were three worts, the boil times were 1, 1.5 and 2 hours. (Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 46.)


Chadwick had some unusual ideas about hop additions. His system was add a little more than half the hops at the beginning of the boil. The remainder was used to dry-hop when the beer was filled into casks after cleansing. The hops helped to prevent too rigorous a secondary fermentation and to clear the beer. It also helped the flavour: "the spirit already generated by the fermentation, extracts from the hop the volatile and aromatic oils which are often lost in boiling." (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 32-33.)


For private brewers, Chadwick recommended adding sugar 20 minutes before the end of the boil. "The public brewer is not allowed to make use of this material, but it is not prohibited in private brewing, and it gives both strength and flavour to the beer." (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 57-58.) One pound of sugar was added for every bushel (approx 40 pounds) of malt, or, in the case of Table Beer, two pounds. Roberts agreed "I stand not alone in opinion, that a portion of sugar improves the flavour of ale." (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 278.)


According to Roberts, a 70 minute boil was sufficient, with half the hops added at the start of the boil, the second half after 40 minutes. He recommended 8 pounds of best East Kent hops per quarter of malt. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 261.) Adding all the hops at the start of the boil "I have found to be a bad plan, for by boilng long, they lose a great part of their fine aromatic flavour, a flavour which ought to incorporate itself with the wort." (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 274.) By splitting the hops, he wrote "I have found the flavour of the ale to be much more delicate than when all the hops are put in at first and boiled the whole time; for in this case they impart to a coarse and disagreeably bitter flavour." (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 274.) He was in favour of a vigourous boil "the quicker the worts boil, the sooner they wil break." (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 274.)




(Source: "The Art of Brewing and Fermenting" by John Levesque, 1836, page 44.)






CoolingWhen boiling was complete, the wort was moved to the coolers. To hold back the hops, a birch broom was fixed in front of the tap opening in the copper. A bag of horsehair placed just before the cooler trapped any remaining hops. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 36-37.)


Coolers were large and very shallow, the wort being no more than two or three inches deep. In large breweries, pipes, through which cold spring water was pumped, were placed inside the coolers. These helped cool the wort more quickly. Brewers were only too aware that the longer the wort took to cool, the greater the risk of infection. The maximum safe length of time for cooling was about 12 hours. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 42.)


As private brewers lacked the equipment to cool worts quickly, they were advised not to brew in the summer. Commercial brewers, with coolers capable of operating in warmer weather, were able to brew all year. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 43.)


In temperate weather, when the air temperature was aroung 50º F, worts were cooled to 68º-70º F. The final temperature could be lower in warm weather. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 43.)






FermentationAfter cooling, the wort was moved to the gyle tuns, where fermentation took place. The gyle tuns were not filled to the top to leave plenty of room for the head of yeast that would be formed. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 45.)


The pitching temperature depended on the volume being fermented. The aim was to prevent the temperature of the wort rising above 80º F and ideally keep it below 74º F. As a larger volume would heat up more, the larger the gyle-tun, the lower the pitching temperature. For a brew of three to four barrels, yeast could be pitched at up to 70º F. If the temperature rose above 80º F there was a chance of vinegar forming. On the other hand, if the temperature was too low, the wort would not properly attenuate. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 46-47.) Roberts gives a higher pitching temperature, 72º to 75º F. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 265.)


Though worts would ferment without the addition of yeast, adding sufficient, good quality yeast was preferred. A yeast which left no nasty flavours in the beer should be selected. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 47.)


"Worts when left at these temperatures will soon begin to ferment without the addition of yeast;" (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 45.)


For strong worts, 1.75 to 2 pounds of yeast per barrel was recommended. Slightly less, 1.5 to 1.75 pounds per barrel was enough for weaker worts. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 47.) Roberts wrote that 2 pounds of yeast per barrel was ample. he suggested only intially pitching two thirds of the yeast, keeping back the rest to add should the fermentation be sluggish. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 265.)


Between 7 and 10 hours after pitching, a head began to form around the edges of the tun, gradually expanding towards the middle until the whole surface of the wort was covered. As fermentation continued a uneven, rocky head developed. The yeast was skimmed off when the head began to collapse. This was repeated every 8 to 10 hours. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 47-48.)


Chadwick recommended feeding the yeast after the first skimming with a combination of wheat flour and salt. For every four barrels of wort, two pounds of flour and half a pound of salt were mixed with a little wort and then added to the gyle-tun. The flour helped the fermentation and the salt clarification. It's worth noting that this preparation would have been illegal in a commercial brewery. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 48-49.)


During fermentation the gravity and temperature of the wort was checked every 12 hours. You can see these noted down in many brewing logs. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 49.) Depending on the air temperature, primary fermentation could take between 3 and 12 days. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 53.)


The degree of attenuation depended on the gravity and the length of time I beer was intended to be kept. A wort of 1055 meant to be drunk young could be fermented down to between 1008 and 1011. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 50.) The correct degree of attenuation was imporatant if the beer were to taste neither too thin nor too heavy. Chadwick recommended a finishing gravity of between a third and a quarter of the starting gravity. That is, an apparent degree of attenuation of between 67% and 75%. The former being for keeping beers, the latter for ones to be drunk immediately. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 51-52.)







Fermentation schema Table Ale 1834



pitched at 68º, 17 pounds of yeast



date

time

heat

gravity

air temp.



Oct 23

8:00 PM

68º

1085,9

47º



Oct 24

8:00 PM

73º

1072,0

44º



Oct 25

8:00 PM

74º

1063,7

44º



Oct 26

8:00 PM

71º

1056,8

47º



Oct 27

8:00 PM

68º

1050,4

45º



Oct 28

8:00 PM

63º

1047,1

45º



Oct 30

8:00 PM

58º

1040,7

44º



Nov 1

8:00 PM

57º

1036,0

48º



Nov 3

4:00 AM

54º

1034,6

41º



Cleansed at 1034.6



Fermentation too slow



Source:
"A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835









Fermentation schema Table Beer 1834



pitched at 68º, 17 pounds of yeast



date

time

heat

gravity

air temp.



Sept 3

10:00 PM

67º

1055,4

44º



Sept 4

8:00 PM

71º

1040,2

48º



Sept 5

8:00 PM

74º

1026,3

47º



Sept 6

8:00 PM

72º

1016,6

47º



Sept 7

4:00 AM

64º

1013,0

41º



Cleansed at 1013 having skimmed twice



added 2 lbs flour and 8 oz. Salt



Source:
"A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835












CleansingWhen the beer was sufficiently attenuated, it was transferred into casks in the cellar. Care was taken when removing the beer from the gyle-tun to leave any sediment behind. The casks were unbunged to allow yeast to escape through the bung hole, being topped up when necessary. The idea was to remove any remaining yeast from the beer. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 54.) The perfect cellar had a constant temperature of between 50º and 60º F. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 57.)


To more efficiently promote the expulsion of yeast a device made of tin was fitted to the bung hole. It was a three-inch diameter tube with another horizontal tube sticking out from its side. The tube was kept full of beer. Any yeast was forced through the horizontal tube, past the edge of the cask and into a vessel placed to catch it. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 55.)


When activity in the cask had ceased, dry hops were added and the bung fitted. Chadwick sings the praises of hops added at this stage: "They will be found to contribute the delightful smell, and fine flavour of the hop, much more perfectly than those hops which have undergone a long boiling, and they will equally contribute to the preservation of the beer, and prevent any after-fretting that might arise." The vent peg wasn't initially made totally tight, so excess CO2 could still escape. When no more CO2 was being generated, the vent peg was hammered in to totally seal the cask. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 55-56.)


For Ale brewed in March to be kept all summer, Roberts suggested mixing some old Ale with hops and adding it to the cask after cleansing. About half a pound of hops per barrel was the right amount of hops. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 269.)


The system of cleansing was different in Scotland. Rather than run the beer directly into casks, it was first transferred to a square of about the same size as the fermenter, taking care to leave behind most of the yeast. The beer remained in the square between 12 and 36 hours. At the end of this time fermentation had finished and the beer was fairly clear. It was then run into barrels, but these were not placed on stillions, as in England, as no yeast was rising to the surface. They were just left on the brewery floor for a few days then bunged shut. (Source: "Scottish Ale Brewer", WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1847, page 143-144.)






FiningAccording to Chadwick, there was no need to use finings if you brewed properly. In addition "fining by isinglass or any other artificial means, always produces flatness in the beer, and a tendency to become hard, unless it is drunk almost immediately." (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, page 61.)


Roberts was equally unhappy about using finings. "Fining ale is a very bad practice, and should not be adopted without an absolute necessity, as it always tends to flatten it, and rather promotes acidity" (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 270.)






Porter BrewingHitchcock suggested beginning with a relatively low temperature for the first mash, 160 to 163º F, "the object being to go so low as to prevent acidity in the wort". The mash was left to stand between 1.5 to two hours, depending on the weather. The hotter it was, the shorter the time stood. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by Thomas Hitchcock, London, 1842, page 47.)


The second mash was at 170 to 178º F, again left to stand for 1.5 to 2 hours. The third mash was at 184 to 186º F, left to stand for 45 minutes. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by Thomas Hitchcock, London, 1842, page 47.)


Barclay Perkins were still mashing their Porters three times in 1850, though the process varied for different beers. TT, their standard Porter was mashed twice, then sparged once. The strong Stouts BSt and IBSt were mashed 3 times and sparge 3 times. The others, EI, Hhd and FSt were mashed three times and sparged once or twice for a return wort.


Barclay Perkins TT mashing schema, for 240 quarters of malt brls mash rate water temp tap temp. gravity brls grv. Points OG of beer
mash 1 578 2,41 158 146,5 1090,8006 309,5 28.102,79
mash 2 368 1,53 178 161 1060,5522 331,5 20.073,05
sparge 432 1,80 158 157 1033,2954 341,75 11.378,70
total 1378 982,75 59.554,54 1.060,60
Source:
Brewing logs from the Courage archive in the London Metropolitan Archive.
Their practice confirms Hitchock's recommendation of a low temperature for the first mash, folowed by a significantly warmer second mash.




1850 Barclay Perkins BSt mashing schema, for 290 quarters of malt brls mash rate water temp tap temp. gravity brls grv. Points OG of beer
mash 1 508 1,75 164 148,5 1113,5146 184,75 20971,82235
sparge 180 0,62 142 141
mash 2 250 0,86 185 160 1096,8669 244,25 23659,74033
sparge 160 0,55 149 143
mash 3 354 1,22 198 173 1063,6546 229,25 14592,81705
sparge 160 0,55 149 143
1612 658,25 59224,37973 1089,972472
Source:
Brewing logs from the Courage archive in the London Metropolitan Archive.
The Brown Stout had higher mashing temperatures, starting at 164º F for the first mash, rising to 1908º F for the third. The sparges were relatively cool.






The first two worts were boiled with between 6 and 8 pounds of hops per quarter of malt. Hitchcock recommends a long boil - between two and three hours - "in order that the rank bitter of the hops may be extracted and a fine empyreumatic flavour produced" (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by Thomas Hitchcock, London, 1842, page 47.)


Primary fermentation took the gravity down to at least of 1022º - 1025º before cleansing. (Source: "A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by Thomas Hitchcock, London, 1842, page 47.)






MashingThe techniques for mashing Porter were different to those used when brewing from just pale malt. With a pure pale malt grist, mashes were kept to a minimum and there were mutiple sparges. Darker malts needed more mashes to extract its insoluble parts. In addition, black malt was apt to clog the false bottom and the grains needed to be remixed to allow the wort to drain freely. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 494.)


Roberts suggests a grist of 70% pale, 24% brown and 6% black malt. The method he desribed had a single mash, with a striking heat of 180º to 182º F. The grains were mashed for 20 minutes, then covered and left to stand for 90 minutes. The wort was then drawn off, being returned to the tun until it ran clear. When all the wort had run off, the tap was closed and the same volume of water as the first wort used to sparge. This water was at 190º F. It was left to stand for 15 minutes, then the wort run off. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 pages 280-281.)




BoilingThere was a belief amongst some Porter brewers in London that a long boil was required - 8 or 9 hours - to darken the wort. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 503.)


Roberts recommended splitting the hops into two equal halves, adding the first to the wort at the start of the boil, the second after forty minutes. In total, the wort was boiled briskly for 65 minutes. (Source: "The British Wine-Maker and Domestic Brewer" by WH Roberts, Edinburgh, 1835 page 281.)




FermentationWorts were cooled to between 60º and 63º F before pitching. They were fermented in rounds or squares fitted with attemperators to control the temperature. The wort was not allowed to heat above 70º to 75º F. When the gravity had dropped to between 1030 and 1033, the wort was transferred to pontoes, with a capacity of 10 to 20 barrels, where it was cleansed. The yeast was expelled into stillions. To save on labour, the pontoes were kept filled automatically by "a self-acting apparatus consisting of parachute, tank, ball-cock, pipes, etc." (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 504.)


The final gravity was between 1014º and 1020º. At this point it could be vatted. (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 503.)


Though the vast majority of beer was produced using top-fermentation, spontaneous fermentation was practised by private brewers in some counties.


"The Spontaneous fermentation is never employed, except for strong Ale. Weak worts would probably run into acidity before the vinous fermentation could take place. In this country, the strongest wort (that of the first mash) is well boiled with a very large proportion of hops, which are judged necessary for the preservation of beer that is to be so long kept. When sufficiently boiled (which is judged by its breaking pure, as described at p. 40, Part II.), the wort is turned boiling-hot into the casks, without separating it very nicely from the hops. The casks that we saw were butts, standing on end, and containing about three barrels each; and the bung-hole in the top was, in the first instance, either left open, or slightly covered, at pleasure. In about forty-eight hours, less or more according to circumstances that are indeterminate, a froth is seen to issue at the bung-hole; and this working, which never carries a head of yeast, continues during eight or ten days, when it gradually subsides, leaving the surface of the liquor covered with a white crust. At this period, the beer will usually be found, owing to the diminution of heat, to have shrunk into less space, and to have left six or eight inches of a vacuity in the cask. The cask ought properly to be filled up; but for want of spare beer this is often neglected: and it is said that the liquor keeps equally well, being defended from the atmospheric air by its crust. For the first three months, the ale, though pure, is not reckoned fit for drinking. It has a rank bitter flavour, which our informant ascribed to the seeds of the hops which lay steeped in the cask: but in five or six months that flavour goes off; and it becomes fit for drinking, though it is usually kept untapped for a twelvemonth."
Source: "The Art of Brewing", by David Booth, 1834, Part III page 14.




VattingAgeing in vats, especially vats with a large capacity, improved the flavour of Porter. "The spontaneous and gradual decomposition which takes place in a large vat creates a peculiarly grateful kind of acerbity and fulness on the palate; which is not to be found in new or unvatted porter;" (Source: "The Theory and Practice of Brewing" by W.L. Tizard, London, 1846, page 503.)






Domestic brewing

"Our readers may naturally wish to learn this gentleman's method of brewing; and we are happy to have it in our power to gratify them, by giving his own details for making Economical Home-brewed.


"To brew three bushels of malt, which should be rather of the brown dried kind, or if pale, two and a half bushels, and half a bushel of porter malt, the latter will give colour and more richness, or fulness, than is generally imagined. The Excise laws do not allow sufficient time for the barley to grow, or acrospire, as it is called, in cold weather, and the number of wettings must be the same, unless done by stealth; hence it frequently happens, that strong barley, when malted in cold weather, does not vegetate or grow sufficiently; therefore the smal} private brewer should always have the best that can be bought, and brown dried rather than pale, or two and a half bushels pale, and a half bushel of porter malt, as above. The three bushels of malt will require three pounds of good hops, and take the chance whether Kent or Sussex, but Mathon hops are the best. "The utensils necessary are, an eighteen gallon copper, a mashing tub, 55 to 60 gallops; two coolers, 24 gallons each; and one tub, 36 to 40 gallons; two pails, one bowl, one sieve, one mashing stick, one wooden tap and basket, one funnel, two casks, 12 gallons each, and one cask 18 gallons, beer measure, and all sweet and clean. Boil 18 gallons of water, and put into the mash tub, which must stand 15 or 18 inches from the floor, and fill the copper again ; then, a quarter of an hour before boiling, the malt may be put into the water already in the tub, taking care that it is all wetted and separated; by this time the copper will boil, and the 18 gallons of water may be put to the former water and malt, stirring the mass till a thick froth be produced, say 15 minutes; then cover the tub with sacks, and let it stand full three hours from the boiling of the second copper, in cold weather; but in warm weather, a half or three-quarters of an hour less; the mass should be well stirred twice previous to the last hour, one hour being necessary for it to settle before drawing off the wort; during the mash standing and drawing off, there must be 24 gallons more water boiled, to put on the grains for the second mashing, to stand two hours and a half, and be well stirred as before.


"The wort is to run into one of the 24 gallon coolers, which will be nearly full; then put 16 gallons of the wort into the copper, and a pound and a half of hops, and by keeping up a good fire it will boil in 30 or 40 minutes, and the boiling briskly must be continued fully an hour; if there is much waste, you may put in occasionally a pint or a quart of wort, out of that remaining in the cooler, to keep the copper as full as possible, but take care not to check the boiling too much; ten minutes previous to the expiration of this boiling hour, some more wort must be running off, in order to make up 16 gallons for a second boiling with the remainder of the hops.


"The beer in the copper is to be strained through the sieve into the other cooler, and the second boiling is then to be performed like the first. The remainder of the wort is to continue running off, having the tub raised up three or four inches behind, so that all the liquor may run from the grains, on which throw 10 gallons of cold water, stir up the mass again, and let it stand till the second boiling has continued the hour, then run off to make a third boiling, with all the hops over again, for one hour as before. The two first boilings may then be put into the 36 gallon tub, and the last into one of the coolers; and when not more than milk warm, stir into each half a pint of yeast, as good as can be had. The beer must be within doors, and if a cold night covered up close, but only half covered if warm. By the middle of the next day the yeast is to be taken off again at three o'clock, and again before barrelling it in the evening, or it will work too much in the barrels.


"It may be mixed as you think proper, but always taking care to tap the weakest first, namely, one of the 12 gallons, and the 18 gallons next, and then with another 12 gallons you may brew again, leaving one 12 gallons on hand.


"By the above plan, which I have followed for seven years, Al to 45 gallons of really good beer can be had from three bushels of malt and three pounds hops. The barrels will require filling up gently two or three times before the beer will be done fermenting; when done, put the bungs in tight, leaving out the pegs for a few more days, from the day of brewing.


"The cow-keepers will buy the grains, and probably the baker would buy the yeast, some of which should be used in making one or two batches of home-made bread and cakes for the family; seven pounds of good flour will make nearly nine pounds of bread, better than twelve pounds of baker's bread. Of this we have had abundant proofs.


"We cannot drink London brewers' ale nor porter, but we like the Edinburgh and Alloa very well—a proof, perhaps, that these are genuine." See page 308, above."
"The Family oracle of health: economy, medicine, and good living" by A.F. Crell and W.M. Wallace, 1824, pages 378 - 379.












Styles



Beer gravites in the 1830's
beer type lbs/barrel OG
Burton 40 1110.8
Edinburgh 36 1099.72
Ale 30 1083.1
Ale 28 1077.56
London Porter 22 1060,94
Brown Stout 24 1066.48
Family Table Beer 18 1049.86
London Table Beer 15 1041.55
Workhouse Small Beer 6 1016.62
Source:
"A Practical Treatise on Brewing" by William Chadwick, 1835, pages 38-39.












"Of Burton Ale.


We have formerly given Mr. Richardson's instructions for the brewing of this liquor; but we acknowledge that we have never been able to produce the flavour and permanent sweetness of Burton ale by following that gentleman's directions. The indiscriminate prohibitions of the Excise rise up before us, as they probably did before Mr. Richardson. They may have arrested his pen; but they shall not ours. We write not for the common brewer, but for the private gentleman, whose operations are unfettered. We will not say that the plan which we shall here point out is followed by the brewers at Burton, but we know that ale very like to theirs, in all respects, has been the result of this process.


Two ounces of salt of steel, dried until it becomes white, is infused into twenty barrels of liquor before mashing, that quantity of liquor being usually allowed for the first mash of ten quarters of malt. The use of this small portion of salt of steel is supposed to assist the extract; but we think that it has, more probably, been introduced to catch any incipient dose of oxygen which might favour the production of acidity. Its value may be questioned; but this small proportion, at any rate, is harmless.


Twenty barrels of this liquor is then turned upon the ten quarters of malt, in the ordinary way, upwards, through the false bottom. The heat is between 165° and 170°,—generally nearer the former. The mashing is continued about an hour, after which it is allowed to infuse about an hour and a half longer; the goods being covered with a sack of dry malt to preserve the heat.


When the first mash is run off, from ten to fifteen barrels of liquor (according to the proposed strength) is run over the goods at the heat of 185°. This is allowed to infuse two hours, when it will have sunk and mixed with the goods, without having been mashed. This differs from the Scotch practice by making up the length with one, in place of many sparges. Practice enables the brewer to fix the quantity of this second liquor; but he runs some risk of error in untried malts, while the Scotch brewer is always safe by weighing the wort in separate and successive portions.


This second liquor being run off, the strong ale worts are all extracted; and table beer, or a return, is made to exhaust the goods. It is usual, in the case of table beer, to cap the goods with a quantity of dry malt, which is understood to be necessary in order to procure the requisite strength. We believe that this practice (of which we do not approve) originated from a different cause. There was a time when the Excise objected to party'gyles, that is, tomaking two kinds of beer from the same malt; the capping was introduced to make (formally) a separate brewing, and was continued from the influence of custom. The least quantity of capping answered the purpose, so that it covered the goods, the strength being regulated by the quantity of liquor in the table-beer mash. This mash is generally made at 150° of heat, and allowed to stand about an hour:—but we return to the strong ale.


The quantity of hops is usually about six pounds to the quarter of malt, and the time of boiling from two to two and a half hours. From ten to fifteen minutes before turning off, a quantity of honey, at least equivalent to a pound per barrel, is put into the copper The honey is previously dissolved in scaldinghot liquor.


With respect to the fermentation, the tun is pitched at sixty-four or sixty-five degrees, with a pound of solid yeast per barrel. The first head is skimmed to rid the wort of the impurities which usually float upon the surface. After this the tun is generally kept covered, except when it is roused, which it is, twice or thrice a day. In from fortyeight to sixty hours it ought to rise to eighty degrees, or more; and when the gravity is about twelve pounds, it is usual to put half a gallon of bean flour and four ounces of sal prunella, previously well roused together in a portion of the worts, to every twenty barrels. The whole is then cleansed into barrels, which are filled up every two hours until they cease to discharge any yeast. Should the fermenting tun fall in heat, some recommend that two ounces and a half of jalap should be added for every twenty barrels of the wort.


Immediately after the casks have ceased working, six ounces of unburnt, but bruised, sulphate of lime, mixed up with an ounce of powdered black rosin, (both previously whisked in a small quantity of the ale,) are put into each barrel. Over this a small handful of half-boiled hops is also inserted; and the cask, being then quite full, is closely bunged up, having a gimlet hole, closed with a peg, at the side of the bung-hole, as an occasional vent for the escape of the carbonic acid which may afterwards be generated. The rosin and hops preclude the access of atmospheric air; and the sulphate of lime, which in a short time disappears, is said to prevent any secondary fermentation,—the usual forerunner of acidity. The honey is also understood to ward off the acid fermentation. Honey and water, especially when boiled, does not readily complete its attenuation, and hence it is supposed to answer all the preservative purposes of hops in the beer of Louvain.


The strength of the Burton, like that of every other species of ale, varies with the price. The qualities are seldom more than two; the one weighing from 30 to 32 pounds per barrel, and the other somewhere between 35 and 40, differing in the several brewhouses and with the demands of their customers. The latter, however, is accounted a maximum strength, and exceeded only in rare instances. Below 28 pounds the preservative quality, so peculiar to this sort of ale, is not to be depended on. The charge is usually by the gallon, because the sizes of their casks are various.


The following are notes of a brewing conducted according to the preceding directions:—




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